Which countries lead research in critical technologies

Each country's share of the most-cited research papers, technology by technology. Rebuilt from open data, with the method and every definition published.

Technologies led, of 45; leads on fewer than five papers or tied are not counted37CNChina8USUnited States

A third measure, with home-country citation bias removed, is computed for five technologies so far and shown on their pages.

Highlight a country

Technology, by

Share of the 10% most cited papers, 2021–2025

0%102030405060708090

Lead over second

Computing and AI

eight technologies

AI chips689 papers in the top 10%

KRCN China 46.2%South Korea 12.1%United States 3rd, 11.6%

3.8×

High-performance computing269 papers in the top 10%

CNUS United States 36.3%China 13.9%

2.6×

Wide-bandgap semiconductors747 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 40.8%United States 18.6%

2.2×

Advanced robotics703 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 31.5%United States 16.0%

2.0×

Advanced chip manufacturing390 papers in the top 10%

INCN China 31.8%India 16.6%United States 3rd, 15.0%

1.9×

Distributed ledgers1,799 papers in the top 10%

INCN China 20.6%India 12.4%United States 3rd, 6.7%

1.7×

Large language models3,671 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 27.4%United States 19.4%

1.4×

Cybersecurity2,967 papers in the top 10%

INCN China 14.8%India 11.9%United States 4th, 7.6%

1.2×

Quantum

five technologies

Quantum computing2,014 papers in the top 10%

CNUS United States 34.9%China 11.2%

3.1×

Quantum communication586 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 28.9%United States 14.1%

2.1×

Atomic clocks127 papers in the top 10%

CNUS United States 38.7%China 19.9%

1.9×

Post-quantum cryptography338 papers in the top 10%

INCN China 20.4%India 12.5%United States 3rd, 9.8%

1.6×

Quantum sensors416 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 22.5%United States 21.5%

1.0×

Communications and sensing

eight technologies

Electronic warfare117 papers in the top 10%

CACN China 81.0%Canada 2.1%United States 2nd–3rd, 1.4%

–

Radar600 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 77.0%United States 2.9%

26.5×

Sonar and underwater acoustics363 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 71.6%United States 4.1%

17.4×

Hyperspectral imaging851 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 71.4%United States 4.2%

16.9×

Satellite navigation703 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 56.1%United States 5.5%

10.1×

Inertial navigation301 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 64.0%United States 6.4%

10.0×

6G and advanced wireless1,351 papers in the top 10%

GBCN China 39.9%United Kingdom 9.0%United States 3rd, 6.2%

4.4×

Optical communication702 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 38.8%United States 12.4%

3.1×

Space, air and defence

seven technologies

Autonomous underwater vehicles382 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 71.7%United States 3.7%

19.2×

Advanced aircraft engines340 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 64.6%United States 4.9%

13.1×

Drones and swarming1,445 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 52.2%United States 5.0%

10.4×

Directed energy92 papers, small sample

DECN China 57.5%Germany 5.6%United States 3rd–4th, 4.3%

10.3×

Hypersonic flight372 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 65.9%United States 7.4%

8.9×

Space launch101 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 34.8%United States 12.3%

2.8×

Small satellites126 papers in the top 10%

CNUS United States 13.7%China 12.9%

1.1×

Energy

seven technologies

Hydrogen by electrolysis1,564 papers in the top 10%

KRCN China 53.0%South Korea 4.7%United States 3rd, 4.3%

11.4×

Hydrogen storage and ammonia fuel957 papers in the top 10%

SACN China 44.5%Saudi Arabia 4.5%United States 4th, 4.2%

9.8×

Electric batteries7,469 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 68.0%United States 7.6%

8.9×

Perovskite solar cells1,818 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 53.9%United States 6.5%

8.2×

Supercapacitors2,949 papers in the top 10%

INCN China 46.3%India 13.9%United States 6th, 2.3%

3.3×

Nuclear fission power748 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 43.3%United States 22.1%

2.0×

Nuclear fusion901 papers in the top 10%

CNUS United States 27.5%China 14.8%

1.9×

Materials and manufacturing

five technologies

Advanced composites1,062 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 50.8%United States 6.0%

8.4×

Metamaterials2,618 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 55.5%United States 8.8%

6.3×

Critical minerals processing455 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 43.0%United States 13.8%

3.1×

Additive manufacturing4,048 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 34.0%United States 11.3%

3.0×

Magnets and superconductors468 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 35.0%United States 14.2%

2.5×

Biotechnology

five technologies

Synthetic biology634 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 45.7%United States 15.0%

3.1×

mRNA vaccines and therapeutics970 papers in the top 10%

CNUS United States 38.7%China 16.1%

2.4×

New antibiotics and antivirals811 papers in the top 10%

USCN China 30.3%United States 15.3%

2.0×

Genome sequencing625 papers in the top 10%

CNUS United States 33.6%China 27.6%

1.2×

Gene editing1,155 papers in the top 10%

CNUS United States 32.2%China 27.4%

1.2×

The large circle is the leader and the bar is its distance from second place; the multiple is the leader's share divided by the runner-up's. Grey dots are the next eight countries. Source: OpenAlex, pulled 18 October 2026. Method

Show this as a table

Technology	First	Second	Third	China	United States
Electronic warfare	China 81.0%	Canada 2.1%	United States 1.4%	1st, 81.0%	3rd, 1.4%
Radar	China 77.0%	United States 2.9%	United Kingdom 2.8%	1st, 77.0%	2nd, 2.9%
Autonomous underwater vehicles	China 71.7%	United States 3.7%	United Kingdom 2.4%	1st, 71.7%	2nd, 3.7%
Sonar and underwater acoustics	China 71.6%	United States 4.1%	Italy 2.9%	1st, 71.6%	2nd, 4.1%
Hyperspectral imaging	China 71.4%	United States 4.2%	India 2.4%	1st, 71.4%	2nd, 4.2%
Advanced aircraft engines	China 64.6%	United States 4.9%	United Kingdom 4.3%	1st, 64.6%	2nd, 4.9%
Hydrogen by electrolysis	China 53.0%	South Korea 4.7%	United States 4.3%	1st, 53.0%	3rd, 4.3%
Drones and swarming	China 52.2%	United States 5.0%	United Kingdom 3.8%	1st, 52.2%	2nd, 5.0%
Directed energy	China 57.5%	Germany 5.6%	United Kingdom 4.3%	1st, 57.5%	4th, 4.3%
Satellite navigation	China 56.1%	United States 5.5%	Germany 3.9%	1st, 56.1%	2nd, 5.5%
Inertial navigation	China 64.0%	United States 6.4%	Canada 3.7%	1st, 64.0%	2nd, 6.4%
Hydrogen storage and ammonia fuel	China 44.5%	Saudi Arabia 4.5%	Australia 4.5%	1st, 44.5%	4th, 4.2%
Hypersonic flight	China 65.9%	United States 7.4%	India 6.0%	1st, 65.9%	2nd, 7.4%
Electric batteries	China 68.0%	United States 7.6%	South Korea 3.4%	1st, 68.0%	2nd, 7.6%
Advanced composites	China 50.8%	United States 6.0%	United Kingdom 5.6%	1st, 50.8%	2nd, 6.0%
Perovskite solar cells	China 53.9%	United States 6.5%	South Korea 4.6%	1st, 53.9%	2nd, 6.5%
Metamaterials	China 55.5%	United States 8.8%	South Korea 4.0%	1st, 55.5%	2nd, 8.8%
6G and advanced wireless	China 39.9%	United Kingdom 9.0%	United States 6.2%	1st, 39.9%	3rd, 6.2%
AI chips	China 46.2%	South Korea 12.1%	United States 11.6%	1st, 46.2%	3rd, 11.6%
Supercapacitors	China 46.3%	India 13.9%	South Korea 7.3%	1st, 46.3%	6th, 2.3%
Optical communication	China 38.8%	United States 12.4%	Canada 3.5%	1st, 38.8%	2nd, 12.4%
Critical minerals processing	China 43.0%	United States 13.8%	Australia 4.3%	1st, 43.0%	2nd, 13.8%
Quantum computing	United States 34.9%	China 11.2%	Germany 6.0%	2nd, 11.2%	1st, 34.9%
Synthetic biology	China 45.7%	United States 15.0%	South Korea 5.0%	1st, 45.7%	2nd, 15.0%
Additive manufacturing	China 34.0%	United States 11.3%	India 6.7%	1st, 34.0%	2nd, 11.3%
Space launch	China 34.8%	United States 12.3%	South Korea 8.9%	1st, 34.8%	2nd, 12.3%
High-performance computing	United States 36.3%	China 13.9%	Germany 7.5%	2nd, 13.9%	1st, 36.3%
Magnets and superconductors	China 35.0%	United States 14.2%	United Kingdom 5.7%	1st, 35.0%	2nd, 14.2%
mRNA vaccines and therapeutics	United States 38.7%	China 16.1%	Germany 3.5%	2nd, 16.1%	1st, 38.7%
Wide-bandgap semiconductors	China 40.8%	United States 18.6%	Japan 5.3%	1st, 40.8%	2nd, 18.6%
Quantum communication	China 28.9%	United States 14.1%	Germany 7.6%	1st, 28.9%	2nd, 14.1%
New antibiotics and antivirals	China 30.3%	United States 15.3%	India 4.7%	1st, 30.3%	2nd, 15.3%
Advanced robotics	China 31.5%	United States 16.0%	Italy 6.4%	1st, 31.5%	2nd, 16.0%
Nuclear fission power	China 43.3%	United States 22.1%	South Korea 4.4%	1st, 43.3%	2nd, 22.1%
Atomic clocks	United States 38.7%	China 19.9%	Germany 11.5%	2nd, 19.9%	1st, 38.7%
Advanced chip manufacturing	China 31.8%	India 16.6%	United States 15.0%	1st, 31.8%	3rd, 15.0%
Nuclear fusion	United States 27.5%	China 14.8%	Germany 11.8%	2nd, 14.8%	1st, 27.5%
Distributed ledgers	China 20.6%	India 12.4%	United States 6.7%	1st, 20.6%	3rd, 6.7%
Post-quantum cryptography	China 20.4%	India 12.5%	United States 9.8%	1st, 20.4%	3rd, 9.8%
Large language models	China 27.4%	United States 19.4%	United Kingdom 3.7%	1st, 27.4%	2nd, 19.4%
Cybersecurity	China 14.8%	India 11.9%	Saudi Arabia 8.4%	1st, 14.8%	4th, 7.6%
Genome sequencing	United States 33.6%	China 27.6%	United Kingdom 5.0%	2nd, 27.6%	1st, 33.6%
Gene editing	United States 32.2%	China 27.4%	South Korea 4.2%	2nd, 27.4%	1st, 32.2%
Small satellites	United States 13.7%	China 12.9%	Italy 11.5%	2nd, 12.9%	1st, 13.7%
Quantum sensors	China 22.5%	United States 21.5%	Germany 10.2%	1st, 22.5%	2nd, 21.5%

45 technologies and 517,481 papers published 2021–2025. The summary table is free to reuse with attribution, including commercially.

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