China in critical technology research
China ranks first in 37 of the 45 critical technologies tracked here and second in the other eight, by share of the most cited research published 2021–2025, and its share rose in 38 of them between 2021–2023 and 2024–2025.
Data: OpenAlex, research published 2021–2025, pulled 23 October 2026. Definition version 0.5.
Which way China is moving, technology by technology
Share of the 10% most cited papers for China and the United States, 2021–2023 against 2024–2025. Within each field, the technologies where China's share rose most come first; its change is on the right.
2021–20232024–2025Share of the 10% most cited papers
The numbers behind the chart
| Technology | China | United States |
|---|---|---|
| Large language models | 15.3% → 29.2% | 29.1% → 18.0% |
| Wide-bandgap semiconductors | 36.0% → 45.8% | 20.2% → 17.0% |
| AI chips | 42.8% → 49.3% | 15.7% → 7.9% |
| Advanced chip manufacturing | 26.3% → 37.6% | 12.8% → 17.3% |
| High-performance computing | 12.1% → 16.1% | 39.5% → 32.3% |
| Cybersecurity | 14.3% → 15.1% | 7.2% → 7.9% |
| Distributed ledgers | 20.8% → 20.4% | 6.1% → 7.4% |
| Advanced robotics | 30.7% → 32.4% | 17.5% → 14.4% |
| Quantum computing | 9.9% → 12.6% | 39.6% → 29.8% |
| Quantum communication | 31.0% → 26.5% | 13.2% → 15.0% |
| Post-quantum cryptography | 25.9% → 17.1% | 11.7% → 8.6% |
| Atomic clocks | 19.3% → 20.6% | 36.1% → 41.6% |
| Quantum sensors | 19.4% → 25.7% | 20.5% → 22.6% |
| Satellite navigation | 53.1% → 59.8% | 6.3% → 4.7% |
| Inertial navigation | 63.7% → 64.4% | 5.9% → 7.0% |
| Radar | 73.2% → 81.5% | 3.8% → 1.8% |
| Sonar and underwater acoustics | 67.5% → 75.9% | 5.2% → 3.0% |
| Electronic warfare | 83.9% → 78.5% | 2.4% → 0.6% |
| Hyperspectral imaging | 67.5% → 76.3% | 5.2% → 3.0% |
| Optical communication | 36.1% → 42.0% | 12.8% → 12.0% |
| 6G and advanced wireless | 39.5% → 40.1% | 6.7% → 5.7% |
| Small satellites | 13.7% → 11.7% | 15.2% → 11.5% |
| Advanced aircraft engines | 62.6% → 66.6% | 7.0% → 2.8% |
| Hypersonic flight | 62.4% → 69.7% | 6.5% → 8.3% |
| Drones and swarming | 48.1% → 56.4% | 5.8% → 4.3% |
| Autonomous underwater vehicles | 70.9% → 72.6% | 5.1% → 2.4% |
| Space launch | 26.9% → 45.8% | 16.5% → 6.3% |
| Directed energy | 52.8% → 63.1% | 5.9% → 2.4% |
| Electric batteries | 64.0% → 72.0% | 9.6% → 5.7% |
| Supercapacitors | 51.0% → 40.5% | 2.6% → 1.8% |
| Perovskite solar cells | 49.7% → 58.8% | 8.0% → 4.9% |
| Hydrogen by electrolysis | 46.1% → 57.8% | 4.4% → 4.4% |
| Nuclear fusion | 15.6% → 14.0% | 28.4% → 26.4% |
| Nuclear fission power | 40.1% → 46.9% | 24.9% → 19.0% |
| Hydrogen storage and ammonia fuel | 38.7% → 49.2% | 6.0% → 2.8% |
| Additive manufacturing | 29.9% → 38.5% | 12.8% → 9.7% |
| Critical minerals processing | 35.9% → 48.2% | 13.9% → 13.7% |
| Metamaterials | 52.6% → 58.7% | 10.9% → 6.4% |
| Magnets and superconductors | 31.7% → 39.1% | 17.2% → 10.6% |
| Advanced composites | 49.1% → 52.6% | 8.5% → 3.3% |
| Gene editing | 23.5% → 33.0% | 35.2% → 27.8% |
| mRNA vaccines and therapeutics | 9.8% → 25.1% | 42.3% → 33.6% |
| Synthetic biology | 44.8% → 46.6% | 16.5% → 13.2% |
| Genome sequencing | 27.4% → 27.9% | 36.7% → 29.6% |
| New antibiotics and antivirals | 27.1% → 35.1% | 18.6% → 10.4% |
China topic by topic: China in AI research, China in robotics research and China in semiconductor research.
Where China is not first: the United States leads 8
China is second in each. Share of the 10% most cited papers.
| Technology | United States | China | Change for China |
|---|---|---|---|
| High-performance computing | 36.3% | 13.9% | +4.1 pts |
| Quantum computing | 34.9% | 11.2% | +2.7 pts |
| Atomic clocks | 38.7% | 19.9% | +1.4 pts |
| Small satellites | 13.7% | 12.9% | −2.1 pts |
| Nuclear fusion | 27.5% | 14.8% | −1.6 pts |
| Gene editing | 32.2% | 27.4% | +9.5 pts |
| mRNA vaccines and therapeutics | 38.7% | 16.1% | +15.3 pts |
| Genome sequencing | 33.6% | 27.6% | +0.6 pts |
After China and the United States, the United Kingdom, South Korea, India and Germany lead the most
Set the two aside: the number of technologies each country would lead.
large language models, radar, 6G and advanced wireless, advanced aircraft engines, drones and swarming, autonomous underwater vehicles, magnets and superconductors, advanced composites and genome sequencing
- KRSouth Korea9
AI chips, space launch, electric batteries, perovskite solar cells, hydrogen by electrolysis, nuclear fission power, metamaterials, gene editing and synthetic biology
- INIndia9
advanced chip manufacturing, cybersecurity, distributed ledgers, post-quantum cryptography, hyperspectral imaging, hypersonic flight, supercapacitors, additive manufacturing and new antibiotics and antivirals
- DEGermany9
high-performance computing, quantum computing, quantum communication, atomic clocks, quantum sensors, satellite navigation, directed energy, nuclear fusion and mRNA vaccines and therapeutics
- ITItaly3
advanced robotics, sonar and underwater acoustics and small satellites
- CACanada3
inertial navigation, electronic warfare and optical communication
- JPJapan1
wide-bandgap semiconductors
- SASaudi Arabia1
hydrogen storage and ammonia fuel
- AUAustralia1
critical minerals processing
Questions
Which technologies does China lead in research?
China writes the largest share of the 10% most cited papers in 37 of 45 critical technologies (2021–2025), from electronic warfare, radar and autonomous underwater vehicles at the top to cybersecurity.
Where does the United States still lead China?
In eight of 45 technologies: high-performance computing, quantum computing, atomic clocks, small satellites, nuclear fusion, gene editing, mRNA vaccines and therapeutics and genome sequencing. China is second in each.
Is China's share of top research still rising?
In 38 of 45 technologies, comparing 2021–2023 with 2024–2025. It fell in distributed ledgers, quantum communication, post-quantum cryptography, electronic warfare, small satellites, supercapacitors and nuclear fusion.
Does China's lead hold among the 1% most cited papers?
Mostly. China is first in the top 1% in 31 of 45. Where China leads the top 10% but another country leads the top 1%: advanced chip manufacturing (United States), cybersecurity (India), advanced robotics (United States), post-quantum cryptography (United States) and quantum sensors (United States).
Which countries come next after China and the United States?
Set the two aside and United Kingdom leads 9, South Korea leads 9, India leads 9, Germany leads 9, Italy leads 3 and Canada leads 3.
The data, and where to go next
- China in AI researchChina leads three of four
- China in robotics researchChina 31.5% of the top papers, the United States 16.0%
- China in semiconductor researchChina leads all three
- China's rank, technology by technologyWith its neighbours in each ranking
- Is China ahead of the US in technology?All 45, head to head