World Tech Rankings
China in critical technologies

Is China winning the defence sensing research race?

Yes. China writes most of the world's most influential research in drones, radar, sonar, electronic warfare and hypersonics; the United States writes under a tenth in each.

Measured by each country's share of the 10% most cited defence sensing research papers published 2021–2025, as of October 2026. It counts research influence, not total output, weapons or military strength. How it's measured

Year by year, China is pulling ahead in drones, radar, sonar and hypersonics

Each line shows how much of a year's most influential research came from each country.

ChinaUnited StatesOther leadersFew papers that yearHover or tap a year. Open a chart for the full ranking.

Drones and swarming2021–2025 overall: China 52.2%, US 5.1%
03060% 200720162025 CN 56.4%US 5.6%
Radar2021–2025 overall: China 77.0%, US 2.9%
050100% 200720162025 CN 79.6%US 1.0%
Sonar and underwater acoustics2021–2025 overall: China 71.6%, US 4.1%
04080% 200720162025 CN 75.2%US 1.1%
Electronic warfare2021–2025 overall: China 81.0%, US 1.4%
050100% 20212022202320242025 CN 77.6%US 0.5%

14–35 top papers a year, so single years swing.

Hypersonic flight2021–2025 overall: China 65.9%, US 7.4%
04080% 20072010201520202025 CN 68.0%US 9.5%

Share of each year's 10% most cited papers, with each paper's credit split between its authors' countries. Hollow markers and dashed lines: fewer than 20 top papers that year. Years before 2021 with fewer than 20 top papers are not drawn. Source: OpenAlex, pulled 24 October 2026.

Table of the numbers
Drones and swarming: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
20104.8%33.3%21
201112.0%26.8%23
20124.3%40.6%32
201311.1%27.6%41
201431.1%21.2%45
201522.9%26.6%52
201625.2%14.0%63
201726.5%19.6%72
201831.2%14.3%114
201930.8%10.5%144
202044.0%7.0%175
202142.3%6.4%209
202245.8%6.8%246
202354.5%4.5%279
202456.4%2.7%321
202556.4%5.6%393
Radar: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
200719.1%29.9%21
200835.3%34.3%25
200936.1%31.4%28
201019.5%34.2%36
201139.1%21.8%41
201244.4%17.6%43
201346.7%12.5%54
201443.4%16.3%60
201550.1%12.0%55
201653.6%17.7%59
201751.4%9.3%67
201866.7%6.7%75
201968.3%5.8%99
202068.3%9.4%86
202163.3%6.7%101
202277.9%1.4%113
202377.3%3.7%115
202483.5%2.6%134
202579.6%1.0%137
Sonar and underwater acoustics: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
20070.0%48.8%20
20080.0%44.0%21
20095.2%47.0%22
20102.2%50.4%22
20110.0%36.2%29
20126.5%31.8%31
20138.1%40.5%37
201415.5%29.6%31
201534.8%18.1%32
201630.4%16.9%33
201725.1%13.0%41
201856.4%8.2%43
201961.1%2.8%53
202053.7%6.8%54
202166.7%6.1%51
202265.7%5.3%64
202369.7%4.6%68
202476.7%5.1%83
202575.2%1.1%97
Electronic warfare: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
202176.2%3.6%14 (few)
202279.3%1.7%20
202393.5%2.4%21
202479.7%0.7%27
202577.6%0.5%35
Hypersonic flight: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
20107.1%53.8%20
201134.4%37.1%22
201227.1%39.1%24
201335.0%30.6%31
201444.8%29.8%37
201569.8%24.3%35
201651.6%11.1%40
201745.0%18.5%42
201850.8%19.0%51
201955.4%16.7%53
202038.8%17.0%54
202150.9%12.2%57
202261.8%5.1%70
202372.5%3.3%70
202471.9%6.8%78
202568.0%9.5%97

What stands out

  1. In 18 years, China went from behind the United States to the lead in sonar. In 2007, China wrote none of the most influential sonar papers and the United States about half. In 2025, China wrote about three in four and the United States fewer than one in twenty (1.1%).
  2. In electronic warfare, China's lead is overwhelming. China writes about four in five of the most influential electronic-warfare papers, while no other country writes more than 2.1%.
  3. The United States writes fewer than one in ten of the top papers in every area. Its largest share is in hypersonics: 7.4%, against 65.9% for China.

Editor's notes, re-checked against the data on every update (latest 24 October 2026); a note the data stops supporting is removed.

China gained ground in four of five areas

The United States lost ground in three. Hollow dots: 2021–2023. Filled: 2024–2025. On the right, China's change in percentage points. Electronic warfare has 62 top papers in 2024–2025, so a few papers move it.

2021–20232024–2025Share of the 10% most cited papers

Drones and swarming
+8.3 pts
Radar
+8.4 pts
Sonar and underwater acoustics
+8.4 pts
Electronic warfare
−5.4 pts
Hypersonic flight
+7.3 pts
The numbers behind the chart
TechnologyChinaUnited StatesNext country
Drones and swarming48.1% → 56.4%5.8% → 4.3%United Kingdom 4.5% → 3.0%
Radar73.2% → 81.5%3.8% → 1.8%South Korea 1.9% → 2.6%
Sonar and underwater acoustics67.5% → 75.9%5.2% → 3.0%Italy 3.1% → 2.6%
Electronic warfare83.9% → 78.5%2.4% → 0.6%Portugal 0.0% → 1.6%
Hypersonic flight62.4% → 69.7%6.5% → 8.3%India 8.7% → 3.1%

Drones and swarming: China leads by a wide margin

Uncrewed aircraft, and groups of them that fly and act together.

China writes about half of the most influential drone papers, about ten times the United States' share. Since 2021–2023, China's share rose by 8 points and the US share fell by about a quarter.

2021–2025: China 52.2% (1st, about 760 of the 1,448 top papers), the United States 5.1% (2nd, about 74), the United Kingdom 3.8% (3rd), South Korea 3.6% (4th), Canada 2.6% (5th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 48.1% to 56.4%, the United States 5.8% to 4.3%. All 81 countries and institutions

Top 1%
China leads, 42.1%
Leading Chinese institution
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1st in the world
China's most cited study
Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning for Task Offloading in UAV-Assisted Mobile Edge Computing 460 citations

Radar: China leads by a wide margin

Detecting and imaging objects with radio waves, from synthetic-aperture imaging to phased arrays.

China writes about three in four of the most influential radar papers, more than 20 times the United States' share. Since 2021–2023, China's share rose by 8 points and the US share more than halved.

2021–2025: China 77.0% (1st, about 460 of the 600 top papers), the United States 2.9% (joint 2nd, about 17), the United Kingdom 2.8% (joint 2nd), Italy 2.7% (4th), South Korea 2.2% (joint 5th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 73.2% to 81.5%, the United States 3.8% to 1.8%. All 41 countries and institutions

Top 1%
China leads, 74.9%
Leading Chinese institution
National University of Defense Technology, 1st in the world
China's most cited study
SAR Ship Detection Dataset (SSDD): Official Release and Comprehensive Data Analysis 726 citations

Sonar and underwater acoustics: China leads by a wide margin

Finding, tracking and communicating with sound under water.

China writes about seven in ten of the most influential sonar papers, more than ten times the United States' share. Since 2021–2023, China's share rose by 8 points and the US share nearly halved.

2021–2025: China 71.6% (1st, about 260 of the 363 top papers), the United States 4.1% (2nd, about 15), Italy 2.9% (3rd), India 2.0% (4th), Canada 1.6% (joint 5th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 67.5% to 75.9%, the United States 5.2% to 3.0%. All 37 countries and institutions

Top 1%
China leads, 81.6%
Leading Chinese institution
Northwestern Polytechnical University, 1st in the world
China's most cited study
A Gray Scale Correction Method for Side-Scan Sonar Images Considering Rugged Seafloor 380 citations

Electronic warfare: China leads by a wide margin

Jamming, deceiving and protecting radar and radio signals.

China writes about four in five of the most influential electronic-warfare papers, against 1.4% for the United States. Since 2021–2023, China's share fell by 5 points.

2021–2025: China 81.0% (1st, about 95 of the 117 top papers), Canada 2.1% (joint 2nd), the United States 1.4% (joint 2nd, about 2), South Korea 1.0% (joint 4th), Portugal 0.8% (joint 4th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 83.9% to 78.5%, the United States 2.4% to 0.6%. With 117 top papers in all, a few papers move these shares. All 23 countries and institutions

Top 1%
China leads, 72.7%
Leading Chinese institution
Xidian University, 1st in the world
China's most cited study
Radar Deception Jamming Recognition Based on Weighted Ensemble CNN With Transfer Learning 154 citations

Hypersonic flight: China leads by a wide margin

Vehicles and engines that fly at more than five times the speed of sound.

China writes about two-thirds of the most influential hypersonics papers, about nine times the United States' share. Since 2021–2023, China's share rose by 7 points and the US share grew by about a third.

2021–2025: China 65.9% (1st, about 250 of the 372 top papers), the United States 7.4% (2nd, about 27), India 6.0% (3rd), Italy 1.7% (joint 4th), South Korea 1.7% (joint 4th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 62.4% to 69.7%, the United States 6.5% to 8.3%. All 28 countries and institutions

Top 1%
China leads, 64.2%
Leading Chinese institution
National University of Defense Technology, 1st in the world
China's most cited study
Suppression of combustion mode transitions in a hydrogen-fueled scramjet combustor by a multi-channel gliding arc plasma 161 citations

Beyond China and the United States

South Korea, Italy, the United Kingdom, Canada and India are among the top three after China and the United States in two or more areas each. The highest placing for any other country is 2nd: the United Kingdom in radar and Canada in electronic warfare.

CountryDrones and swarmingDronesRadarRadarSonar and underwater acousticsSonarElectronic warfareElec­tronic warfareHypersonic flightHyper­sonicsStrongest area
=6th2.1%=7th0.6%4th2.0%=4th0.7%3rd6.0%Hypersonics
4th3.6%=5th2.2%=9th0.9%=4th1.0%=4th1.7%Drones
=12th1.2%4th2.7%3rd2.9%=4th0.8%=4th1.7%Sonar
3rd3.8%=2nd2.8%=9th1.0%=4th0.4%=9th0.8%Radar
5th2.6%=10th0.4%=5th1.6%=2nd2.1%=18th0.2%Electronic warfare
8th1.9%=7th0.5%=5th1.6%=4th0.5%=12th0.6%Sonar
=6th2.1%=16th0.2%=5th1.6%=20th0.1%=9th0.9%Sonar
=20th0.7%=5th2.1%=15th0.5%–=4th1.5%Hypersonics
=9th1.8%=10th0.4%–=4th0.4%=4th1.6%Hypersonics
=9th1.8%=7th0.6%=9th1.0%=4th0.8%–Radar
=12th1.2%=10th0.3%=9th0.9%–8th1.3%Hypersonics
=16th0.9%=16th0.2%=24th0.1%=4th0.8%=9th0.9%Hypersonics

Rank, then share of the most cited papers, 2021–2025. "=" marks a tie. Hover or tap a cell for more; tap a country to follow it through the page.

Does China's lead hold up?

Yes. Counting only the 1% most cited papers, China still leads all five areas it leads overall. Discounting citations that come from China itself beyond what its size predicts, China's drone share falls from 52.2% to 48.4%, and it still ranks 1st.

Check 1: only the most cited 1% of papers

Each technology's top 1% is a tenth as many papers as its top 10%, so a few papers move it. Hollow: the top 10%. Filled: the top 1%.

Top 10%Top 1%Share of each tier's papers

Drones and swarming147 papers in the top 1%
China
Radar63 papers in the top 1%, a small sample
China
Sonar and underwater acoustics39 papers in the top 1%, a small sample
China
Electronic warfare14 papers in the top 1%, a small sample
China
Hypersonic flight38 papers in the top 1%, a small sample
China
The numbers behind the chart
TechnologyChina, top 10%China, top 1%United States, top 10%United States, top 1%
Drones and swarming52.2%42.1%5.1%5.7%
Radar77.0%74.9%2.9%6.8%
Sonar and underwater acoustics71.6%81.6%4.1%2.0%
Electronic warfare81.0%72.7%1.4%2.4%
Hypersonic flight65.9%64.2%7.4%7.8%

Check 2: discounting home-country citations

In drones, sonar and hypersonics, China's top papers are cited from within China more than its size would predict (1.2 to 1.4 times as often); in radar and electronic warfare, about as much as predicted. Remove that excess and China's share goes from 52.2% to 48.4% in drones and is about unchanged in hypersonics (65.9% to 66.1%); it still leads in each (the two areas recomputed this way so far).

The numbers behind this check

Researchers cite work from their own country more often. This compares how often China's top papers are cited from China with what China's size in the field predicts; the re-ranking removes only the excess.

TechnologyCitations from ChinaExpected from its sizeExcess
Drones and swarmingEvery top-10% paper72.8%55.0%+17.8 pts
RadarUp to 100 single-country papers81.2%77.4%+3.8 pts
Sonar and underwater acousticsUp to 100 single-country papers75.7%63.1%+12.6 pts
Electronic warfare67 single-country papers78.5%80.0%−1.5 pts
Hypersonic flightEvery top-10% paper85.3%61.8%+23.5 pts

Home citers include authors citing their own earlier work. Re-ranking with the excess removed is computed so far for drones and swarming (China 52.2% → 48.4%) and hypersonic flight (China 65.9% → 66.1%).

China's most influential defence sensing papers

The most cited papers led from China, 2021–2025. Tap a technology.

  1. Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning for Task Offloading in UAV-Assisted Mobile Edge Computing
    IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications2022CNSG
    Hubei University of Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China and Peng Cheng Laboratory
    460citations, #5 of 1,448 worldwide
  2. An Improved Artificial Potential Field Method for Path Planning and Formation Control of the Multi-UAV Systems
    IEEE Transactions on Circuits & Systems II Express Briefs2021CN
    Beijing Institute of Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology and Beihang University
    416citations, #7 of 1,448 worldwide
  3. A Clustering-Based Coverage Path Planning Method for Autonomous Heterogeneous UAVs
    IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems2021CN
    Northwestern Polytechnical University
    349citations, #13 of 1,448 worldwide
  4. Joint Maneuver and Beamforming Design for UAV-Enabled Integrated Sensing and Communication
    IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications2022CN
    Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen and Shenzhen Research Institute of Big Data
    329citations, #17 of 1,448 worldwide
  5. IRS-Assisted Secure UAV Transmission via Joint Trajectory and Beamforming Design
    IEEE Transactions on Communications2021CNGBJPSG
    Dalian University of Technology and South China University of Technology
    309citations, #23 of 1,448 worldwide

"Led from China": at least half the author credit is Chinese. Reviews are spotted by OpenAlex's paper type and by their titles, so a few may slip through.

China writes the largest share in all 24 sub‑areas

These are the 24 specialist areas with at least 30 top papers, all in hypersonics, radar, sonar and drones. Its narrowest margin is in delivery, routing and logistics (drones and swarming): 33.2% against 16.5% for the United States.

Share of the sub-area's papers in the top 10%: China against the strongest other country

Guidance, control and trajectories (incl. interception)Hypersonic flight, 56 papers
+91.4 pts
SAR ship detectionRadar, 141 papers
+87.9 pts
SAR and ISAR target recognition and classificationRadar, 114 papers
+85.5 pts
Underwater acoustic target recognition (ship-radiated noise)Sonar and underwater acoustics, 72 papers
+83.1 pts
Active cooling and fuel heat transferHypersonic flight, 46 papers
+77.9 pts
Sonar image detection and classificationSonar and underwater acoustics, 80 papers
+73.2 pts
Underwater acoustic communication (physical layer)Sonar and underwater acoustics, 44 papers
+69.7 pts
SAR and ISAR imaging algorithmsRadar, 76 papers
+68.8 pts
MIMO radar waveforms, beamforming and direction findingRadar, 66 papers
+65.6 pts
Ultra-high-temperature ceramics and thermal protection materialsHypersonic flight, 35 papers
+63.6 pts
Target detection, tracking and clutter suppressionRadar, 49 papers
+61.4 pts
Swarms and multi-drone cooperation, formation and task allocationDrones and swarming, 279 papers
+59.4 pts
Drone-enabled edge computing and IoT data collectionDrones and swarming, 257 papers
+58.0 pts
Underwater acoustic sensor networks: routing, MAC, localisationSonar and underwater acoustics, 68 papers
+55.6 pts
Integrated sensing and communication (dual-function radar)Radar, 55 papers
+49.0 pts
Path planning, obstacle avoidance and exploration (single drone)Drones and swarming, 159 papers
+47.5 pts
Scramjet and detonation engine combustionHypersonic flight, 116 papers
+46.7 pts
Drone-assisted wireless communications and sensingDrones and swarming, 274 papers
+44.9 pts
Flight control, dynamics and airframe design (quadrotor, VTOL)Drones and swarming, 164 papers
+43.8 pts
Vision-based navigation and learning-based agile flightDrones and swarming, 39 papers
+32.2 pts
Aerothermodynamics, boundary layers and high-speed flowHypersonic flight, 75 papers
+31.7 pts
Security, privacy, identification and safetyDrones and swarming, 67 papers
+19.8 pts
Civil applications (agriculture, search and rescue, disasters)Drones and swarming, 64 papers
+19.4 pts
Delivery, routing and logistics (incl. truck-drone)Drones and swarming, 57 papers
+16.7 pts
The numbers behind the chart
Sub-areaTechnologyPapersChinaStrongest other country
Guidance, control and trajectories (incl. interception)Hypersonic flight5692.5% (1st)Netherlands 1.1%
SAR ship detectionRadar14190.0% (1st)South Korea 2.1%
SAR and ISAR target recognition and classificationRadar11488.2% (1st)United Kingdom 2.7%
Underwater acoustic target recognition (ship-radiated noise)Sonar and underwater acoustics7285.2% (1st)Australia 2.1%
Active cooling and fuel heat transferHypersonic flight4683.7% (1st)South Korea 5.8%
Sonar image detection and classificationSonar and underwater acoustics8078.2% (1st)Poland 5.0%
Underwater acoustic communication (physical layer)Sonar and underwater acoustics4474.2% (1st)Italy 4.5%
SAR and ISAR imaging algorithmsRadar7676.7% (1st)South Korea 7.9%
MIMO radar waveforms, beamforming and direction findingRadar6670.1% (1st)Italy 4.5%
Ultra-high-temperature ceramics and thermal protection materialsHypersonic flight3573.1% (1st)United States 9.5%
Target detection, tracking and clutter suppressionRadar4972.0% (1st)Italy 10.6%
Swarms and multi-drone cooperation, formation and task allocationDrones and swarming27963.6% (1st)United Kingdom 4.2%
Drone-enabled edge computing and IoT data collectionDrones and swarming25763.3% (1st)South Korea 5.3%
Underwater acoustic sensor networks: routing, MAC, localisationSonar and underwater acoustics6860.5% (1st)Saudi Arabia 4.9%
Integrated sensing and communication (dual-function radar)Radar5558.8% (1st)United Kingdom 9.8%
Path planning, obstacle avoidance and exploration (single drone)Drones and swarming15953.4% (1st)United States 5.9%
Scramjet and detonation engine combustionHypersonic flight11660.3% (1st)India 13.6%
Drone-assisted wireless communications and sensingDrones and swarming27451.3% (1st)United Kingdom 6.4%
Flight control, dynamics and airframe design (quadrotor, VTOL)Drones and swarming16448.9% (1st)Ethiopia 5.1%
Vision-based navigation and learning-based agile flightDrones and swarming3945.0% (1st)United States 12.8%
Aerothermodynamics, boundary layers and high-speed flowHypersonic flight7549.1% (1st)United States 17.4%
Security, privacy, identification and safetyDrones and swarming6728.2% (1st)United States 8.4%
Civil applications (agriculture, search and rescue, disasters)Drones and swarming6428.9% (1st)India 9.5%
Delivery, routing and logistics (incl. truck-drone)Drones and swarming5733.2% (1st)United States 16.5%

Specialist areas sorted by an AI model reading each paper (92% agreement with hand labels). Electronic warfare is left out: none of its specialist areas has 30 top papers.

The universities behind China's lead

National University of Defense Technology is in the world's top ten in all five areas, more than any other Chinese institution.

  1. National University of Defense Technology5th in drones and swarming, 1st in radar, 3rd in sonar and underwater acoustics, 2nd in electronic warfare, 1st in hypersonic flight
  2. Northwestern Polytechnical University2nd in drones and swarming, 8th in radar, 1st in sonar and underwater acoustics, 2nd in hypersonic flight
  3. Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics1st in drones and swarming, 6th in radar, 8th in electronic warfare
  4. University of Electronic Science and Technology of China4th in drones and swarming, 2nd in radar, 3rd in electronic warfare
  5. Beijing Institute of Technology9th in drones and swarming, 4th in radar, 6th in electronic warfare
  6. Chinese Academy of Sciences5th in radar, 7th in sonar and underwater acoustics, 10th in hypersonic flight
  7. Southeast University6th in drones and swarming, 10th in radar, 6th in sonar and underwater acoustics
  8. Xidian University3rd in radar, 1st in electronic warfare

Who China writes its top papers with

  1. GBUnited Kingdom129
  2. USUnited States128
  3. SGSingapore99
  4. CACanada87
  5. HKHong Kong86

Questions

Which country leads defence sensing research, China or the United States?

As of October 2026, China leads all five defence sensing areas tracked here, by share of the most cited research papers from 2021–2025: drones and swarming (52.2%), radar (77.0%), sonar and underwater acoustics (71.6%), electronic warfare (81.0%) and hypersonic flight (65.9%).

How do Canada, India, the UK and other countries rank in defence sensing research?

Their best placings: Canada joint 2nd in electronic warfare, India 3rd in hypersonic flight, the United Kingdom joint 2nd in radar, South Korea 4th in drones and swarming, Germany joint 4th in hypersonic flight, Japan joint 9th in sonar and underwater acoustics and Italy 3rd in sonar and underwater acoustics. Pick any country at the top of the page to see its rank in each area.

Is China's share of top defence sensing research growing?

In four of five areas, comparing 2021–2023 with 2024–2025: drones and swarming from 48.1% to 56.4%, radar from 73.2% to 81.5%, sonar and underwater acoustics from 67.5% to 75.9% and hypersonic flight from 62.4% to 69.7%. It fell in electronic warfare (83.9% to 78.5%).

Which Chinese universities lead defence sensing research?

National University of Defense Technology is in the world's top ten in all five areas, more than any other Chinese institution. Others in a world top ten include Northwestern Polytechnical University, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics and University of Electronic Science and Technology of China.

What is China's most cited defence sensing study?

"SAR Ship Detection Dataset (SSDD): Official Release and Comprehensive Data Analysis" (2021), with 726 citations, is the most cited original study led from China in 2021–2025 across these five areas. Counting reviews, it is "Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs): practical aspects, applications, open challenges, security issues, and future trends" (2023), a review with 1,061 citations.

What does this measure, and what does it not?

Each country's share of the 10% most cited research papers published 2021–2025, with each paper's credit split between its authors' countries. Five technologies stand for defence sensing here: drones and swarming, radar, sonar and underwater acoustics, electronic warfare (jamming and protecting radar and radio signals) and hypersonic flight. Much of this research is dual-use: the drone papers include wireless networks, delivery and civil uses. It does not measure weapons, deployed systems, military capability, defence spending, procurement or arms exports. How it's measured.

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Hamadeh, K. (2026). China in defence sensing research. World Tech Rankings. Data: OpenAlex, pulled 24 October 2026. https://worldtechrankings.com/china/defence/

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How this is measured

Most cited papers
For each technology and year, the 10% of papers that other researchers cite most, from OpenAlex, an open catalogue of research. Ranking within each year stops older papers crowding out newer ones.
A country's share
Each paper's credit is split between its authors' countries: a paper with two Chinese and two American authors counts half to each. A country's share is its credit divided by all credit.
The top 1%
The same, for the 1% most cited papers: a tenth as many papers, so it moves more with a few of them.
Home-country citations
Citations from a paper's own country beyond what the country's size in the field predicts. Removing them is a test of whether a lead rests on self-citation.
Sub-areas
Each top paper is sorted into one sub-area by an AI model reading its title and abstract, checked against 200 hand-labelled papers (92% agreement).
Definitions
The keywords and topic lists for radar, sonar and underwater acoustics and electronic warfare have not yet been reviewed by hand; their top papers were checked for relevance by AI.
What it is not
Five technologies stand for defence sensing here: drones and swarming, radar, sonar and underwater acoustics, electronic warfare (jamming and protecting radar and radio signals) and hypersonic flight. Much of this research is dual-use: the drone papers include wireless networks, delivery and civil uses. It does not measure weapons, deployed systems, military capability, defence spending, procurement or arms exports. Research leadership is not military strength: a country can publish the most cited radar papers and still field fewer or weaker systems.

Data: OpenAlex, pulled 24 October 2026; definition version 0.5. Every number on this page is recomputed from the data on each update. Full method.

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