World Tech Rankings
China in critical technologies

Is China winning the quantum race?

It is split. China leads quantum communication and post-quantum cryptography (though India passed it in 2025). The United States leads quantum computing. Quantum sensing is level.

Measured by each country's share of the 10% most cited quantum research papers published 2021–2025, as of October 2026. It counts research influence, not total output, products or industry. How it's measured

Year by year, who is gaining

Each line shows how much of a year's most influential research came from each country.

ChinaUnited StatesOther leadersHover or tap a year. Open a chart for the full ranking.

Quantum computing2021–2025 overall: China 11.2%, US 34.9%
03060% 20052010201520202025 US 28.1%CN 11.8%
Quantum communication2021–2025 overall: China 28.9%, US 14.1%
02040% 20052010201520202025 CN 27.5%US 13.7%IT 5.8%
Quantum sensors2021–2025 overall: China 22.5%, US 21.5%
03060% 20052010201520202025 CN 25.1%US 17.7%DE 10.0%
Post-quantum cryptography2021–2025 overall: China 20.4%, US 9.8%
01530% 201820202025 IN 14.4%CN 13.5%US 9.7%

Share of each year's 10% most cited papers, with each paper's credit split between its authors' countries. Source: OpenAlex, pulled 24 October 2026.

Table of the numbers
Quantum computing: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
20059.9%29.0%106
20065.3%37.1%110
20078.9%33.6%118
20084.0%32.5%120
20092.4%28.9%127
20106.1%33.3%138
20116.6%27.4%131
201211.3%29.6%141
201311.1%29.6%153
20149.1%34.3%163
201511.1%31.7%161
20169.9%36.0%170
201711.3%32.7%185
20188.1%37.2%207
20199.0%38.6%237
20209.9%38.0%269
20216.5%42.5%341
202211.3%39.9%336
202311.8%36.5%367
202413.5%31.8%451
202511.8%28.1%519
Quantum communication: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
200518.9%21.3%26
20061.4%28.3%27
20074.0%22.9%32
200810.4%23.8%31
20090.0%23.9%37
201014.8%11.6%40
20117.9%9.6%37
201218.4%9.2%40
201319.4%14.0%49
20148.4%15.8%53
201515.1%16.2%51
201627.8%10.9%61
201721.1%15.8%64
201810.6%17.2%71
201927.1%13.3%83
202035.8%13.2%88
202124.2%15.5%100
202233.8%12.5%104
202334.6%11.8%108
202425.2%16.6%121
202527.5%13.7%153
Quantum sensors: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
20111.8%23.8%21
20120.0%40.5%22
20135.4%38.2%30
20146.3%27.3%34
201511.8%46.8%34
20162.9%30.4%39
20174.7%28.6%47
20181.4%37.8%49
20196.9%25.8%53
202012.7%33.0%58
202117.7%22.0%64
202219.5%17.9%67
202320.8%21.4%78
202426.4%28.7%93
202525.1%17.7%114
Post-quantum cryptography: share of the 10% most cited papers by year
YearChinaUnited StatesTop papers
201825.3%19.6%20
201926.2%11.6%28
202029.1%7.1%35
202127.9%9.4%39
202222.9%19.0%43
202326.9%7.0%47
202423.8%6.7%73
202513.5%9.7%136

What stands out

  1. China's biggest rise is in quantum sensing: from 1.8% in 2011 to about one in four in 2025. In 2011, China wrote 1.8% of the most influential quantum-sensing papers and the United States about one in four. In 2025, China wrote about one in four and the United States about one in six.
  2. In post-quantum cryptography, India matches the United States. India writes about one in eight of the most influential post-quantum cryptography papers (12.5%), about the same as the United States (9.8%). China writes about one in five.
  3. Quantum computing is the United States' clearest lead. The United States writes about one in three of the most influential quantum-computing papers, about three times China's share.

Editor's notes, re-checked against the data on every update (latest 24 October 2026); a note the data stops supporting is removed.

China gained ground in two of four areas

The United States lost ground in two. Hollow dots: 2021–2023. Filled: 2024–2025. On the right, China's change in percentage points.

2021–20232024–2025Share of the 10% most cited papers

Quantum computing
+2.7 pts
Quantum communication
−4.5 pts
Quantum sensors
+6.2 pts
Post-quantum cryptography
−8.8 pts
The numbers behind the chart
TechnologyChinaUnited StatesNext country
Quantum computing9.9% → 12.6%39.6% → 29.8%Germany 5.7% → 6.4%
Quantum communication31.0% → 26.5%13.2% → 15.0%Germany 8.8% → 6.2%
Quantum sensors19.4% → 25.7%20.5% → 22.6%Germany 10.5% → 10.0%
Post-quantum cryptography25.9% → 17.1%11.7% → 8.6%India 8.1% → 15.2%

Quantum computing: the United States' clearest lead

Computers that use quantum bits to tackle problems out of reach of conventional machines.

The United States writes about one in three of the most influential quantum-computing papers, about three times China's share, though China's share grew by about a third since 2021–2023.

2021–2025: the United States 34.9% (1st, about 700 of the 2,014 top papers), China 11.2% (2nd, about 230), Germany 6.0% (3rd), the United Kingdom 5.9% (4th), Switzerland 3.7% (5th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 9.9% to 12.6%, the United States 39.6% to 29.8%. All 71 countries and institutions

Top 1%
United States leads, 50.3%
China's most cited study
Strong Quantum Computational Advantage Using a Superconducting Quantum Processor 1,063 citations

Quantum communication: China leads

Sending information secured by quantum physics: key distribution, repeaters and quantum networks.

China writes about one in three of the most influential quantum-communication papers, about twice the United States' share. Since 2021–2023, China's share fell by about a fifth and the US share edged up.

2021–2025: China 28.9% (1st, about 170 of the 586 top papers), the United States 14.1% (2nd, about 82), Germany 7.6% (3rd), the United Kingdom 5.5% (4th), Italy 3.6% (5th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 31.0% to 26.5%, the United States 13.2% to 15.0%. All 57 countries and institutions

Top 1%
China leads, 31.4%
Leading Chinese institution
University of Science and Technology of China, 1st in the world
China's most cited study
An integrated space-to-ground quantum communication network over 4,600 kilometres 1,040 citations

Quantum sensors: China and the United States are level

Instruments that use quantum effects to measure magnetic fields, gravity, rotation and time with extreme precision.

China and the United States are about level: each writes about one in five of the most influential quantum-sensing papers (22.5% and 21.5%). Since 2021–2023, China's share grew by about a third and the US share edged up.

2021–2025: China 22.5% (1st, about 94 of the 416 top papers), the United States 21.5% (2nd, about 90), Germany 10.2% (3rd), the United Kingdom 8.4% (4th), France 5.2% (5th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 19.4% to 25.7%, the United States 20.5% to 22.6%. All 48 countries and institutions

Top 1%
United States leads, 29.9%
Leading Chinese institution
University of Science and Technology of China, 1st in the world
China's most cited study
Enhanced metrology at the critical point of a many-body Rydberg atomic system 184 citations

Post‑quantum cryptography: China leads, India and the United States level for second, though the United States leads the very top papers

Encryption designed to stay secure against attacks by future quantum computers.

China writes about one in five of the most influential post-quantum cryptography papers, about twice the United States' share, with India and the United States level behind it, though the United States leads the top 1%. Since 2021–2023, China's share fell by more than a third and the US share fell by about a quarter.

2021–2025: China 20.4% (1st, about 69 of the 338 top papers), India 12.5% (2nd), the United States 9.8% (3rd, about 33), Saudi Arabia 5.3% (4th), South Korea 4.3% (5th). 2021–2023 to 2024–2025: China 25.9% to 17.1%, the United States 11.7% to 8.6%. All 59 countries and institutions

Top 1%
United States leads, 18.2%
Leading Chinese institution
Tsinghua University, 1st in the world
China's most cited study
A Compact Hardware Implementation of CCA-Secure Key Exchange Mechanism CRYSTALS-KYBER on FPGA 218 citations

Beyond China and the United States

Germany and the United Kingdom are next in line in two or more areas each. The highest placing for any other country: India, 2nd in post-quantum cryptography.

CountryQuantum computingQuantum computingQuantum communicationQuantum communicationQuantum sensorsQuantum sensingPost-quantum cryptographyPost-quantum cryptographyStrongest area
3rd6.0%3rd7.6%3rd10.2%=7th2.6%Quantum computing
4th5.9%4th5.5%4th8.4%6th3.4%Quantum computing
13th2.1%=6th3.1%=17th0.8%2nd12.5%Post-quantum cryptography
11th2.4%=9th2.5%5th5.2%=11th1.5%Quantum sensors
10th2.8%5th3.6%6th3.3%=11th1.7%Quantum communication
6th3.4%=14th1.3%=7th2.9%=7th2.8%Quantum computing
=8th3.0%=9th2.5%=7th3.0%=27th0.6%Quantum sensors
5th3.7%=11th2.0%=9th2.1%=18th0.8%Quantum computing
=8th2.9%=18th0.8%=9th2.4%9th2.5%Quantum computing
12th2.2%=6th3.2%=11th1.5%=18th0.9%Quantum communication
15th1.1%=16th1.0%=11th1.4%5th4.3%Post-quantum cryptography
14th1.9%=6th3.3%=22nd0.4%10th2.2%Quantum communication

Rank, then share of the most cited papers, 2021–2025. "=" marks a tie. Hover or tap a cell for more; tap a country to follow it through the page.

Does China's lead hold up?

Partly. Counting only the 1% most cited papers, China still leads one of the two areas it leads overall; the United States leads post-quantum cryptography at that level. Discounting citations that come from China itself beyond what its size predicts, China's quantum-computing share falls from 11.2% to 9.4%, and it still ranks 2nd.

Check 1: only the most cited 1% of papers

Each technology's top 1% is a tenth as many papers as its top 10%, so a few papers move it. Hollow: the top 10%. Filled: the top 1%.

Top 10%Top 1%Share of each tier's papers

Quantum computing204 papers in the top 1%
United States
Quantum communication61 papers in the top 1%, a small sample
China
Quantum sensors44 papers in the top 1%, a small sample
United States
Post-quantum cryptography36 papers in the top 1%, a small sample
United States
The numbers behind the chart
TechnologyChina, top 10%China, top 1%United States, top 10%United States, top 1%
Quantum computing11.2%7.3%34.9%50.3%
Quantum communication28.9%31.4%14.1%16.4%
Quantum sensors22.5%22.0%21.5%29.9%
Post-quantum cryptography20.4%7.7%9.8%18.2%

Check 2: discounting home-country citations

In every area, China's top papers are cited from within China more than its size would predict, 1.4 to 2.5 times as often. Remove that excess and China's quantum-computing share goes from 11.2% to 9.4%; it ranks 2nd (the one area recomputed this way so far).

The numbers behind this check

Researchers cite work from their own country more often. This compares how often China's top papers are cited from China with what China's size in the field predicts; the re-ranking removes only the excess.

TechnologyCitations from ChinaExpected from its sizeExcess
Quantum computingEvery top-10% paper47.9%22.0%+25.9 pts
Quantum communicationEvery top-10% paper56.0%38.9%+17.1 pts
Quantum sensors57 single-country papers61.0%34.6%+26.4 pts
Post-quantum cryptographyEvery top-10% paper44.7%18.6%+26.1 pts

Home citers include authors citing their own earlier work. Re-ranking with the excess removed is computed so far for quantum computing (China 11.2% → 9.4%), quantum communication (China 28.9% → 28.7%) and post-quantum cryptography (China 20.4% → 18.7%).

China's most influential quantum papers

The most cited papers led from China, 2021–2025. Tap a technology.

  1. Strong Quantum Computational Advantage Using a Superconducting Quantum Processor
    2021CN
    University of Science and Technology of China, Shanghai Research Center for Quantum Sciences and QuantumCTek (China)
    1,063citations, #5 of 2,014 worldwide
  2. Phase-Programmable Gaussian Boson Sampling Using Stimulated Squeezed Light
    2021CNNL
    Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China and Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology
    433citations, #39 of 2,014 worldwide
  3. Towards practical quantum computers: transmon qubit with a lifetime approaching 0.5 milliseconds
    2022CN
    Beijing Academy of Quantum Information Sciences
    371citations, #52 of 2,014 worldwide
  4. Realization of an Error-Correcting Surface Code with Superconducting Qubits
    2022CN
    University of Science and Technology of China and Shanghai Research Center for Quantum Sciences
    318citations, #67 of 2,014 worldwide
  5. Single ion qubit with estimated coherence time exceeding one hour
    2021CNSGUS
    Tsinghua University, Southern University of Science and Technology and Beijing Academy of Quantum Information Sciences
    317citations, #68 of 2,014 worldwide

"Led from China": at least half the author credit is Chinese.

Where China leads within quantum technology, and where it does not

China leads 13 of 26 specialist areas. The United States leads ten, India leads two and the Netherlands leads one.

Share of the sub-area's papers in the top 10%: China against the strongest other country

Fibre-based quantum key distribution (twin-field, MDI)Quantum communication, 60 papers
+40.3 pts
Homomorphic encryption and other lattice schemesPost-quantum cryptography, 32 papers
+24.5 pts
Continuous-variable quantum key distributionQuantum communication, 44 papers
+23.8 pts
QKD security proofs, attacks and device-independent QKDQuantum communication, 48 papers
+20.0 pts
Quantum memoriesQuantum communication, 35 papers
+18.8 pts
Hardware and software implementations (FPGA, NTT accelerators)Post-quantum cryptography, 85 papers
+14.1 pts
Photonic quantum computingQuantum computing, 87 papers
+12.8 pts
Quantum network architecture, routing and protocolsQuantum communication, 89 papers
+12.0 pts
Quantum metrology theory and entanglement-enhanced sensingQuantum sensors, 63 papers
+10.1 pts
Quantum light sources and photonic chipsQuantum communication, 64 papers
+4.9 pts
Satellite and free-space quantum communicationQuantum communication, 34 papers
+1.6 pts
Optically pumped magnetometers and magnetoencephalographyQuantum sensors, 55 papers
+1.1 pts
Quantum-safe authentication protocols (IoT, vehicles, health)Post-quantum cryptography, 60 papers
+0.3 pts
Entanglement distribution, repeaters and network nodesQuantum communication, 75 papers
United StatesUS
Post-quantum blockchain and distributed ledgersPost-quantum cryptography, 53 papers
IndiaIN
Diamond nitrogen-vacancy sensorsQuantum sensors, 97 papers
United StatesUS
Standardisation, migration and surveysPost-quantum cryptography, 48 papers
IndiaIN
Atom interferometers, gravimeters and Rydberg-atom sensorsQuantum sensors, 34 papers
United StatesUS
Spin defects in boron nitride, silicon carbide and other materialsQuantum sensors, 50 papers
United StatesUS
Quantum algorithms and applications (incl. quantum machine learning, optimisation, chemistry)Quantum computing, 748 papers
United StatesUS
Spin and semiconductor qubitsQuantum computing, 128 papers
NetherlandsNL
Superconducting qubitsQuantum computing, 233 papers
United StatesUS
Quantum software, compilers, control and benchmarkingQuantum computing, 181 papers
United StatesUS
Quantum error correctionQuantum computing, 156 papers
United StatesUS
Trapped-ion qubitsQuantum computing, 66 papers
United StatesUS
Neutral-atom qubitsQuantum computing, 45 papers
United StatesUS
The numbers behind the chart
Sub-areaTechnologyPapersChinaStrongest other country
Fibre-based quantum key distribution (twin-field, MDI)Quantum communication6048.0% (1st)United States 7.7%
Homomorphic encryption and other lattice schemesPost-quantum cryptography3235.2% (1st)India 10.7%
Continuous-variable quantum key distributionQuantum communication4435.0% (1st)France 11.2%
QKD security proofs, attacks and device-independent QKDQuantum communication4828.5% (1st)Spain 8.5%
Quantum memoriesQuantum communication3531.8% (1st)United States 13.0%
Hardware and software implementations (FPGA, NTT accelerators)Post-quantum cryptography8528.2% (1st)United States 14.1%
Photonic quantum computingQuantum computing8727.5% (1st)United States 14.7%
Quantum network architecture, routing and protocolsQuantum communication8930.5% (1st)United States 18.5%
Quantum metrology theory and entanglement-enhanced sensingQuantum sensors6324.3% (1st)United States 14.2%
Quantum light sources and photonic chipsQuantum communication6421.0% (1st)Germany 16.1%
Satellite and free-space quantum communicationQuantum communication3415.4% (1st)United Kingdom 13.8%
Optically pumped magnetometers and magnetoencephalographyQuantum sensors5531.8% (1st)United Kingdom 30.7%
Quantum-safe authentication protocols (IoT, vehicles, health)Post-quantum cryptography6023.4% (1st)India 23.1%
Entanglement distribution, repeaters and network nodesQuantum communication7526.7% (2nd)United States 27.8%
Post-quantum blockchain and distributed ledgersPost-quantum cryptography5315.3% (2nd)India 20.1%
Diamond nitrogen-vacancy sensorsQuantum sensors9716.7% (2nd)United States 24.4%
Standardisation, migration and surveysPost-quantum cryptography488.3% (3rd)India 16.1%
Atom interferometers, gravimeters and Rydberg-atom sensorsQuantum sensors3413.4% (4th)United States 29.4%
Spin defects in boron nitride, silicon carbide and other materialsQuantum sensors5016.7% (2nd)United States 33.3%
Quantum algorithms and applications (incl. quantum machine learning, optimisation, chemistry)Quantum computing74810.5% (2nd)United States 32.7%
Spin and semiconductor qubitsQuantum computing128not in the top 8Netherlands 23.1%
Superconducting qubitsQuantum computing23318.3% (2nd)United States 49.9%
Quantum software, compilers, control and benchmarkingQuantum computing1815.5% (4th)United States 39.7%
Quantum error correctionQuantum computing1565.1% (5th)United States 46.8%
Trapped-ion qubitsQuantum computing662.8% (8th)United States 47.6%
Neutral-atom qubitsQuantum computing454.6% (6th)United States 62.8%

Specialist areas sorted by an AI model reading each paper (92% agreement with hand labels).

The universities behind China's lead

University of Science and Technology of China, Tsinghua University and CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, USTC are each in the world's top ten in two of the four areas.

  1. University of Science and Technology of China1st in quantum communication, 1st in quantum sensors
  2. Tsinghua University2nd in quantum communication, 1st in post-quantum cryptography
  3. CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, USTC5th in quantum communication, 10th in quantum sensors
  4. Nanjing University7th in quantum communication, 7th in post-quantum cryptography
  5. Beihang University2nd in quantum sensors
  6. Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications3rd in quantum communication
  7. Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics5th in post-quantum cryptography

Who China writes its top papers with

  1. USUnited States72
  2. HKHong Kong19
  3. DEGermany14
  4. GBUnited Kingdom7

Questions

Which country leads quantum research, China or the United States?

As of October 2026, China leads two of the four quantum areas tracked here, by share of the most cited research papers from 2021–2025: quantum communication (28.9%) and post-quantum cryptography (20.4%). The United States leads quantum computing (34.9%).

How do Canada, India, the UK and other countries rank in quantum research?

Their best placings: Canada 7th in quantum computing, India 2nd in post-quantum cryptography, United Kingdom 4th in quantum computing, South Korea 5th in post-quantum cryptography, Germany 3rd in quantum computing and Japan 6th in quantum computing. Pick any country at the top of the page to see its rank in each area.

Is China's share of top quantum research growing?

In two of four areas, comparing 2021–2023 with 2024–2025: quantum computing from 9.9% to 12.6% and quantum sensors from 19.4% to 25.7%.

Which Chinese universities lead quantum research?

University of Science and Technology of China, Tsinghua University and CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, USTC are each in the world's top ten in two of the four areas. Also in a world top ten: Tsinghua University, CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, USTC and Nanjing University.

What is China's most cited quantum paper?

"Strong Quantum Computational Advantage Using a Superconducting Quantum Processor" (2021) with 1,063 citations, the most of any quantum paper led from China in 2021–2025 across these four areas.

What does this measure, and what does it not?

Each country's share of the 10% most cited research papers published 2021–2025, with each paper's credit split between its authors' countries. Four technologies stand for quantum here: quantum computing, quantum communication (including quantum key distribution), quantum sensors, and post-quantum cryptography (encryption built to resist quantum computers). It does not measure who has the most powerful quantum computer, qubit counts, companies, investment or deployed networks. How it's measured.

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Cite it

Hamadeh, K. (2026). China in quantum technology research. World Tech Rankings. Data: OpenAlex, pulled 24 October 2026. https://worldtechrankings.com/china/quantum/

How this is measured

Most cited papers
For each technology and year, the 10% of papers that other researchers cite most, from OpenAlex, an open catalogue of research. Ranking within each year stops older papers crowding out newer ones.
A country's share
Each paper's credit is split between its authors' countries: a paper with two Chinese and two American authors counts half to each. A country's share is its credit divided by all credit.
The top 1%
The same, for the 1% most cited papers: a tenth as many papers, so it moves more with a few of them.
Home-country citations
Citations from a paper's own country beyond what the country's size in the field predicts. Removing them is a test of whether a lead rests on self-citation.
Sub-areas
Each top paper is sorted into one sub-area by an AI model reading its title and abstract, checked against 200 hand-labelled papers (92% agreement).
What it is not
Four technologies stand for quantum here: quantum computing, quantum communication (including quantum key distribution), quantum sensors, and post-quantum cryptography (encryption built to resist quantum computers). It does not measure who has the most powerful quantum computer, qubit counts, companies, investment or deployed networks. Research leadership and industrial leadership can differ.

Data: OpenAlex, pulled 24 October 2026; definition version 0.5. Every number on this page is recomputed from the data on each update. Full method.

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